Hunter-gatherers in the Eastern Mediterranean around 15,000 years ago did not merely scavenge snakes and lizards by chance. A study analyzing bones from 20 cultural layers at the El-Wad Terrace on Mount Carmel, Israel, reported evidence of the selective butchery of large-bodied reptiles spanning approximately 3,000 years.
Reptile bones are small and fragile, making them easily mistaken for natural deposits left by birds, raptors, or predators. The research team verified the hypothesis that these were human food choices by comparing cut mark locations, bone sizes, species composition, and habitat reconstructions. The results shed light on the Natufian people’s broadened diet and the evolving relationship between humans and reptiles during a period of increasing sedentism.
30-Second Summary
- A PNAS study analyzed records from 20 cultural layers at El Wad Terrace, spanning approximately 15,000 to 12,000 years ago.
- Based on the Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), Squamata bones accounted for 25–42% of the assemblage across the different periods.
- Cut marks were observed at recurring locations on 82 snake vertebrae, indicating intentional dismemberment.
- Large-bodied species that posed relatively low capture risks predominated, while venomous snakes were rare.
- The observed changes correlated better with shifts in the intensity of human occupation and settlement patterns than with climatic changes.
What happened?
A research team led by Ma’ayan Lev, Mina Weinstein-Evron, and Reuven Yeshurun quantified reptilian remains from the Early and Late Natufian cultural layers at the el-Wad Terrace on Mount Carmel. The study covers a period roughly 15,000 to 12,000 years ago, spanning 20 consecutive occupation layers. Comparing such a long stratigraphic sequence at a single site allows for the distinction between unique, one-off meals and recurring subsistence strategies.
| Key Taxa | Scientific name | Classification/Characteristics | Current Distribution/Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| European Glass Lizard | Pseudopus apodus | Legless lizard (Anguidae) with a snake-like appearance | Southeast Europe & West Asia; IUCN LC |
| Large Whip Snake | Dolichophis jugularis | Large, non-venomous snake (Colubridae) | Eastern Mediterranean & West Asia; IUCN LC |
| Eastern Montpellier Snake | Malpolon insignitus | Snake species with rear-fanged venom delivery | North Africa & Eastern Mediterranean; IUCN LC |
What Cut Marks on Snake Vertebrae Reveal
Key Point The evidence lies in cut marks found on 82 snake vertebrae. These marks were not randomly scattered but recurred at consistent anatomical locations. This pattern aligns better with repetitive butchery—such as separating the head or torso and stripping away flesh—than with accidental scratches incurred after deposition. Squamates (scaled reptiles) accounted for 25–42% of the identified specimens across the studied periods, suggesting they were far from being a marginal food source.
The researchers also compared body sizes. Large, meat-rich species—such as the European glass lizard, large whip snake, and eastern Montpellier snake—predominated. Conversely, dangerous venomous snakes were rare. This suggests a selective approach that weighed factors such as meat yield, ease of capture, and risk of injury, rather than indiscriminate hunting.
Human behavior over environmental change
The research team reconstructed the past environment by weighting the preferred habitats of the excavated species. Mediterranean shrubland environments remained relatively stable throughout the study period, and changes in reptile exploitation could not be explained solely by fluctuations in climate or habitat. Instead, the patterns correlated more closely with the intensity of site occupation and the transition from a mobile lifestyle to increased sedentism.
Why is this important?
Although the Natufian culture predates the advent of agriculture, it is characterized by relatively permanent settlements and a broad dietary spectrum. Focusing solely on large mammals overlooks certain aspects of this shift in lifestyle; the prevalence of small vertebrates and evidence of their processing reveal how people reliably secured resources tailored to specific seasons and locations. Unlike today’s view of snakes merely as dangerous animals, humans in the past distinguished between species and levels of risk, utilizing them as a resource.
Points to avoid overinterpreting
The proportion of bones does not correspond to the proportion of meat consumed or caloric intake. Reptiles possess numerous vertebrae, and the bone count is also influenced by preservation, recovery, and excavation methods. While cut marks provide direct evidence of consumption, not all Squamata bones necessarily result from human consumption. Long-term records from a single site cannot be generalized to represent the diet of all Natufian communities, nor can this study alone substantiate claims of overexploitation or population decline among reptiles.
Information on the classification and ecology of extant reptiles Comprehensive overview of reptile characteristics, evolution, and classification snake predation and venom resistance the California Kingsnake entry can be explored further in The issue on the flip side of modern lizard and snake conservation is study on conservation gaps for 127 Australian species addresses.
Key takeaway
- Reptile exploitation spanned approximately 3,000 years across 20 stratigraphic layers.
- The presence of 82 recurring cut marks supports the conclusion of intentional dismemberment.
- Large body size and low capture risk influenced prey selection.
- Bone proportions do not equate to meat or caloric proportions.
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